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Clinical trials, mRNA, herd immunity? - a glossary of Covid-19 vaccine terms

The Government has announced its allocation strategy, publishing a list of groups in order of priority.

THE FIRST PERSON on the island of Ireland yesterday received the Pfizer/BioNTech Covid-19 vaccine.

With a number of vaccines close to being approved for use by the European Medicines Agency (EMA), it is widely expected Ireland’s vaccination programme will be rolled out from January. 

The Government has announced its allocation strategy, publishing a list of groups in order of priority. Care home residents over the age of 65 and staff at these facilities will receive the vaccine first.

So, here’s a breakdown of some of the commonly used terms related to Covid-19 vaccines, and what they mean. 

Coronavirus

There’s a reason we knew it first as coronavirus, before we knew it as Covid-19.

Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause illnesses in humans and animals. In humans, many of them cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to more severe conditions such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Symptoms (SARS).

SARS-CoV-2 is the most recently discovered coronavirus.

Covid-19

As mentioned above, Covid-19 is an infectious disease and the most recently discovered form of coronavirus. It was unknown before the outbreak in Wuhan in China in December 2019.

Vaccine

Vaccines are manufactured in different ways using part of the germ or virus which causes the disease.

It is a substance that prompts the body’s immune system to recognise a particular pathogen – like a virus – and create antibodies to destroy it. If vaccinated, it means you are then in a much better position to combat the virus if you later become infected. 

Vaccination/Inoculation 

This is simply the process of administering a vaccine to the body. This is typically done through injection, as is the case with the Pfizer/BioNTech Covid-19 vaccine.

Clinical Trial

Before a vaccine is approved for use, its efficacy must first be tested in a clinical trial which observes the health outcomes of people who are given a dose of a vaccine and people who take a placebo.

Researchers also use clinical trials to see whether a vaccine causes problematic side effects.

Phase 1

The first phase of a clinical vaccine trial generally involves between 20 and 100 volunteers and the intention is to establish whether the vaccine is safe, whether it seems to work and whether there are any serious side effects. This phase will also look at how the size of the dose may be related to side effects.

Phase 2

The second phase involves several hundred people and aims to establish the most common short-term side effects and how the immune systems of those who have been given the vaccine respond. 

Phase 3

This is the most crucial and the most thorough. It involves hundreds of thousands of people, some of whom will be given a placebo.

This phase examines how people who get the vaccine compared with those who get the placebo, whether it is safe and/or effective and it also aims to catch less common side effects as it involves a larger – and ideally more diverse – pool of people. 

The results of the the trials go straight to regulators for examination after Phase Three and if the vaccine is approved based on the results, it can begin to be manufactured and administered. 

In the case of several Covid-19 vaccines these have already been manufactured, with Pfizer/BioNTech the first one to be approved for use. 

coronavirus-tue-dec-8-2020 Margaret Keenan, 90, is the first patient in the United Kingdom to receive the Pfizer/BioNtech covid-19 vaccine at University Hospital, Coventry. PA PA

Emergency Use Authorisation 

The UK used this mechanism to speed up its roll-out of the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine by applying through its Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA).

It basically means approval can be sought and green-lighted much quicker and, given the scale and severity of the pandemic, countries are keen to see effective vaccines administered. 

Pfizer/BioNTech also applied to US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States for emergency use. The FDA is due to meet on Thursday to consider approving the application.

Ireland and the EU, meanwhile, are waiting for the European Medicines Agency (EMA) to meet on 29 December. The EMA is due to decide if both the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine and the Moderna vaccine should be approved for use. 

The EMA has insisted it has the “most appropriate” method to approve a Covid-19 vaccines after the UK fast-tracked its process. 

Immunity 

This is the body’s ability to fight off an infection, often with the help of antibodies.

Active immunity means that antibodies are generated through exposure to a pathogen or a vaccine. 

Immunisation

This is the process of making a person – or millions of people – immune to a disease. It’s essentially the goal of vaccination.  

Herd Immunity 

This means that enough people have become immune to a disease that it makes it difficult to spread. 

In the case of Covid-19, scientists estimate that about 70% of the population will need to be vaccinated to achieve herd immunity.

In the early days of the pandemic, there were calls from some quarters to achieve herd immunity to the virus without any a vaccine having been developed. 

Chief Medical Officer Dr Tony Holohan said in October that said the application of herd immunity as a “serious health policy” in relation to Covid-19 “has no substance”. 

“Herd immunity is a concept used for vaccination, in which a population can be protected from a certain virus if a threshold of vaccination is reached,” he said.

mRNA

The Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine is known as a messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine.

Conventional vaccines are produced using weakened forms of the virus, but mRNAs use only the virus’s genetic code.

An mRNA vaccine is injected into the body where it enters cells and tells them to create antigens.

These antigens are recognised by the immune system and prepare it to fight coronavirus.

No actual virus is needed to create an mRNA vaccine. This means the rate at which it can be produced is dramatically accelerated.  

As a result, mRNA vaccines have been hailed as potentially offering a rapid solution to new outbreaks of infectious diseases.

In theory, they can also be modified reasonably quickly if, for example, a virus develops mutations and begins to change.

mRNA vaccines are also cheaper to produce than traditional vaccines, although both will play an important role in tackling Covid-19.

One downside to mRNA vaccines is that they need to be stored at ultra-cold temperatures and can’t transported easily.

Cold storage 

For temperatures as cold as the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccination requires, dry ice has to be brought into the mix. Currently, the vaccine is shipped in coolers that can be fed with dry ice to keep it frozen for 15 days. After this it can be refrigerated for up to five days before being diluted and injected.

The medical community is already well familiar with the use of the ‘cold chain’ for vaccinations such as flu, but GPs and pharmacists, who will likely play a significant role in the vaccination programme, do not have this kind of infrastructure.

Ireland last week received a shipment of nine cold storage freezers which will be used early next year as the vaccine is rolled out. 

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    Mute Keith Dunne
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:52 PM

    Straight outta Carlow.

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    Mute G
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:04 PM

    Gwan the boyz yup yup

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    Mute TamuMassif2019
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    Jun 8th 2019, 11:00 PM

    Embarrassing…

    91
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    Mute Daragh Ó Murchú
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    Jun 9th 2019, 12:19 AM

    @TamuMassif2019: cad go díreach a bhfuil náireach fúthu ?

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    Mute TamuMassif2019
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    Jun 9th 2019, 12:57 PM

    @Daragh Ó Murchú: I never put much effort into Irish at school…

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    Mute TamuMassif2019
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    Jun 9th 2019, 1:00 PM

    @Daragh Ó Murchú: Them denying their own culture and trying to act if they belong to another culture and to another race, why making eejits of themselves.

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    Mute Mike Spillane
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    Jun 9th 2019, 2:49 PM

    @TamuMassif2019: you haven’t got a clue. I’d say Irish wasn’t the only part of your education you neglected.

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    Mute David Hickey
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    Jun 9th 2019, 5:12 PM

    @TamuMassif2019: Would you say the same of a rock band? Rock music is from the south of the US originally. Should we stop that, and only play trad so?

    5
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    Mute Disco Pants
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:12 PM

    Lowest common denominator trash for the most brainless in society.

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    Mute .
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:18 PM

    @Disco Pants: ooooooh look at me I use big words to seem smarter than anyone else

    207
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    Mute Patsy Mongan
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:18 PM

    @Disco Pants: moron

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    Mute Conor Daly
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:20 PM

    @Disco Pants: idiot

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    Mute Disco Pants
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:22 PM

    @Conor Daly: who bees you dog? Gnome sayin

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    Mute Leitrim303
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:22 PM

    @Disco Pants: i bet you would be great crack on a night out

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    Mute j4VEpUO8
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:25 PM

    @Disco Pants: put down what you don’t understand is smart thinking

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    Mute j4VEpUO8
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:26 PM

    @T Jay O’Mea: putting

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    Mute Blockboy Bertie
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:40 PM

    @Disco Pants: bellend

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    Mute Marty
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:03 PM

    @Disco Pants: Hey mate you havnt got a clue what’s up

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    Mute John Paul
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:07 PM

    @Disco Pants: brainless? Most of these lads are above average intelligence. They have to be to write songs and have the intelligence and confidence to come up with lyrics on the spot

    56
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    Mute Barry Dempsey
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    Jun 9th 2019, 7:55 AM

    @Disco Pants: thanks for your insight. Lowest common denominator trolling

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    Mute Cheeky Bums
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:50 PM

    Anyone else remember Scary Éire?

    56
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    Mute G
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:09 PM

    @Cheeky Bums: Yeah, last I heard he got whacked in Compton, drive by shooting. Rip Scary

    20
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    Mute Linda Kirby
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    Jun 8th 2019, 11:51 PM

    @Cheeky Bums: They played the sugar club on Paddy’s weekend, wasn’t there but it was a great gig so I’ve been told.

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    Mute Rob Cahill
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    Jun 10th 2019, 10:35 AM

    @Cheeky Bums: Yeah, Saw them live back in the day.. great band.

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    Mute Tommy D
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:21 PM

    Mago x mathman have some really good stuff that deserves more air play

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    Mute popeye Doyle
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:40 PM

    Load of me b. O. X s

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    Mute Keith Dunne
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:14 PM

    I said a hip hop …… stall it down the shop ….

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    Mute Sirius
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    Jun 9th 2019, 7:39 AM

    “entrenched racism”? How about a fact check on that claim.

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    Mute Linda Kirby
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    Jun 8th 2019, 11:54 PM

    It’s quite astonishing that an article about Irish rap has no mention of Scary Eire

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    Mute TheFreeSpeechParty
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:46 PM

    Just need to avoid the trap that happens with any Dublin scene where a group of artists get good, then disappear up their own posteriors

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    Mute Iarla Ó
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:28 PM

    Kneecap’s album gets played a lot in our car. Check them out on YouTube/Spotify if you haven’t already.

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    Mute J
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:39 PM

    The comments here are hilarious

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    Mute thephantomshit
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    Jun 8th 2019, 11:43 PM

    Is seems like most Irish hip hop that makes social media graduated out of gonzaga college

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    Mute Keith Dunne
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    Jun 8th 2019, 9:53 PM

    Straight outta Carlow

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    Mute Sega Yolo
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:05 PM

    @Keith Dunne: or Straight outta Carlaa

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    Mute De20
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:22 PM

    I really don’t the Kneecap boys would call themselves northern Irish and what’s with the ‘his real name is an Irish name’ comment? What’s that supposed to mean? Belfast is cheap compared to Dublin but you would be hard pushed to get a room in a shared house for less than £250 a month. For a flat, you’ll be talking £500 a month unless it’s in the absolute worst areas

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    Mute De Zach Same
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    Jun 9th 2019, 4:30 AM

    @De20: We are taking Irish hip hop and somehow you manage to make it about property prices….shame on you.

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    Mute Al coholic
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    Jun 9th 2019, 1:43 AM

    Fair play lads all the best no mention of Rob Kelly from Wexford who really blazed a trail for the hip hop community

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    Mute Bass demon
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    Jun 9th 2019, 2:42 PM

    Rap/ hip hop just never sounds good done by Europeans it just comes across as lame and fake .

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    Mute Michael Maher
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    Jun 9th 2019, 8:27 PM

    diddi diddle dillidy dillidy dillidy dee

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    Mute Marty
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:05 PM

    These boys are very talented not mainstream which is great….we are sick of PC bullshit we’re know
    what’s going down

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    Mute TamuMassif2019
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    Jun 8th 2019, 11:03 PM
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    Mute Vory2Stars
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    Jun 8th 2019, 10:32 PM

    5th element on youtube. Class lads!

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    Mute Donwon999
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    Jun 9th 2019, 9:49 AM

    Calling all da scraggy b I tches from accross the land. Jump up on me 1997 Civic and we’ll show those nerds.

    3
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